Characterization of gastrointestinal transit and luminal conditions in pigs using a telemetric motility capsule

Within preclinical research, the pig has become an important model in regulatory toxicology and pharmacokinetics, to assess oral dosage forms and to compare different formulation strategies. In addition, there are emerging application of the pig model to asses clinical dosing conditions in the fasted and fed state. In this study, the gastrointestinal transit conditions in male landrace pigs were studied with a telemetric motility capsule under fasted and postprandial conditions. The whole gut transit time (WGTT) was determined by administering a SmartPill® capsule to four landrace pigs, under both fasted and fed state conditions in a cross-over study design. Overall, this study found that small intestinal transit in landrace pigs ranged from 2.3 – 4.0 h, and was broadly similar to reported human estimates and was not affected by the intake conditions. Gastric emptying was highly variable and prolonged in landrace pigs ranging from 20 – 233 h and up to 264 h in one specific case. Under dynamic conditions pigs have a low gastric pH comparable to humans, however a high variability under fasted conditions could be observed. The comparison of the data from this study with a recent similar study in beagle dogs revealed major differences between gastric maximum pressures observed in landrace pigs and dogs. In the porcine stomach maximum pressures of up to 402 mbar were observed, which are comparable to reported human data. Intestinal maximum pressures in landrace pigs were in the same range as in humans. Overall, the study provides new insights of gastrointestinal conditions in landrace pigs, which can lead to more accurate interpretation of in vivo results obtained of pharmacokinetic studies in preclinical models. While small intestinal transit conditions, GI pH and pressures were similar to humans, the prolonged gastric emptying observed in pigs need to be considered in assessing the suitability of the pig model for assessing in vivo performance of large non-disintegrated oral drug products.

Comparison of In Vitro and In Vivo Results Using the GastroDuo and the Salivary Tracer Technique: Immediate Release Dosage Forms under Fasting Conditions

The fasted state administration of immediate release (IR) dosage forms is often regarded as uncritical since physiological aspects seem to play a minor role for disintegration and drug release. However, recent in vivo studies in humans have highlighted that fasted state conditions are in fact highly dynamic. It was therefore the aim of this study to investigate the disintegration and drug release behavior of four different IR formulations of the probe drug caffeine under physiologically relevant conditions with the aid of the GastroDuo. One film-coated tablet and three different capsule formulations based on capsule shells either made from hard gelatin or hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (HPMC) were tested in six different test programs. To evaluate the relevance of the data generated, the four IR formulations were also studied in a four-way cross-over study in 14 healthy volunteers by using the salivary tracer technique (STT). It could be shown that the IR formulations behaved differently in the in vitro test programs. Thereby, the simulated parameters affected the disintegration and dissolution behavior of the four IR formulations in different ways. Whereas drug release from the tablet started early and was barely affected by temperature, pH or motility, the different capsule formulations showed a longer lag time and were sensitive to specific parameters. However, once drug release was initiated, it typically progressed with a higher rate for the capsules compared to the tablet. Interestingly, the results obtained with the STT were not always in line with the in vitro data. This observation was due to the fact that the probability of the different test programs was not equal and that certain scenarios were rather unlikely to occur under the controlled and standardized conditions of clinical studies. Nonetheless, the in vitro data are still valuable as they allowed to discriminate between different formulations

Integration of advanced methods and models to study drug absorption and related processes : An UNGAP perspective

Funding Information: AI acknowledges the support of projects icp009 (ALKOOL) of PRACE-ICEI (grant agreement 800858) for awarding access to Piz Daint, at the Swiss National Supercomputing Centre (CSCS), Switzerland and BG05M2OP001–1.001–0004 (UNITe) of the Bulgarian Ministry of Education and Science. For further details on points raised in this article, please contact [email protected]. Funding Information: Acknowledgements. JAGH is supported by the Biocenter Finland, the Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, and the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki. Publisher Copyright: © 2021 The AuthorsThis collection of contributions from the European Network on Understanding Gastrointestinal Absorption-related Processes (UNGAP) community assembly aims to provide information on some of the current and newer methods employed to study the behaviour of medicines. It is the product of interactions in the immediate pre-Covid period when UNGAP members were able to meet and set up workshops and to discuss progress across the disciplines. UNGAP activities are divided into work packages that cover special treatment populations, absorption processes in different regions of the gut, the development of advanced formulations and the integration of food and pharmaceutical scientists in the food-drug interface. This involves both new and established technical approaches in which we have attempted to define best practice and highlight areas where further research is needed. Over the last months we have been able to reflect on some of the key innovative approaches which we were tasked with mapping, including theoretical, in silico, in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo, preclinical and clinical approaches. This is the product of some of us in a snapshot of where UNGAP has travelled and what aspects of innovative technologies are important. It is not a comprehensive review of all methods used in research to study drug dissolution and absorption, but provides an ample panorama of current and advanced methods generally and potentially useful in this area. This collection starts from a consideration of advances in a priori approaches: an understanding of the molecular properties of the compound to predict biological characteristics relevant to absorption. The next four sections discuss a major activity in the UNGAP initiative, the pursuit of more representative conditions to study lumenal dissolution of drug formulations developed independently by academic teams. They are important because they illustrate examples of in vitro simulation systems that have begun to provide a useful understanding of formulation behaviour in the upper GI tract for industry. The Leuven team highlights the importance of the physiology of the digestive tract, as they describe the relevance of gastric and intestinal fluids on the behaviour of drugs along the tract. This provides the introduction to microdosing as an early tool to study drug disposition. Microdosing in oncology is starting to use gamma-emitting tracers, which provides a link through SPECT to the next section on nuclear medicine. The last two papers link the modelling approaches used by the pharmaceutical industry, in silico to Pop-PK linking to Darwich and Aarons, who provide discussion on pharmacometric modelling, completing the loop of molecule to man.Peer reviewe

Impact of regional differences along the gastrointestinal tract of healthy adults on oral drug absorption : an UNGAP review

Oral administration is the most common route of drug delivery. The absorption of a drug from the gut into the bloodstream involves disintegration of the solid dosage form, dissolution of the active pharmaceutical ingredient and its transport across the gut wall. The efficiency of these processes is determined by highly complex and dynamic interplay between the gastrointestinal tract, the dosage form and the API. The European Network on Understanding Gastrointestinal Absorption-related Processes (UNGAP)aims to improve our understanding of intestinal drug absorption by creating a multidisciplinary Network of researchers from academia and industry engaging in scientific discussions. As part of the basis for the UNGAP project, this review aims to summarize the current knowledge on anatomy and physiology of the human gastrointestinal tract with emphasis on human studies for the evaluation of the regional drug absorption and the prediction of oral dosage form performance. A range of factors and methods will be considered, including imaging methods, intraluminal sampling and, models for predicting segmental/regional absorption. In addition, in vitro and in silico methods to evaluate regional drug absorption will be discussed. This will provide the basis for further work on improving predictions for the in vivo behavior of drug products in the gastrointestinal tract

Exploring gastrointestinal variables affecting drug and formulation behavior: methodologies, challenges and opportunities

Various gastrointestinal (GI) factors affect drug and formulation behavior after oral administration, including GI transfer, motility, pH and GI fluid volume and composition. An in-depth understanding of these physiological and anatomical variables is critical for a continued progress in oral drug development. In this review, different methodologies (invasive versus non-invasive) to explore the impact of physiological variables on formulation behavior in the human GI tract are presented, revealing their strengths and limitations. The techniques mentioned allow for an improved understanding of the role of following GI variables: gastric emptying (magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), scintigraphy, acetaminophen absorption technique, ultrasonography, breath test, intraluminal sampling and telemetry), motility (MRI, small intestinal/colonic manometry and telemetry), GI volume changes (MRI and ultrasonography), temperature (telemetry) and intraluminal pH (intraluminal sampling and telemetry)

The mechanisms of pharmacokinetic food-drug interactions: A perspective from the UNGAP group

The simultaneous intake of food and drugs can have a strong impact on drug release, absorption, distribution, metabolism and/or elimination and consequently, on the efficacy and safety of pharmacotherapy. As such, food-drug interactions are one of the main challenges in oral drug administration. Whereas pharmacokinetic (PK) food-drug interactions can have a variety of causes, pharmacodynamic (PD) food-drug interactions occur due to specific pharmacological interactions between a drug and particular drinks or food. In recent years, extensive efforts were made to elucidate the mechanisms that drive pharmacokinetic food-drug interactions. Their occurrence depends mainly on the properties of the drug substance, the formulation and a multitude of physiological factors. Every intake of food or drink changes the physiological conditions in the human gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, a precise understanding of how different foods and drinks affect the processes of drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and/or elimination as well as formulation performance is important in order to be able to predict and avoid such interactions. Furthermore, it must be considered that beverages such as milk, grapefruit juice and alcohol can also lead to specific food-drug interactions. In this regard, the growing use of food supplements and functional food requires urgent attention in oral pharmacotherapy. Recently, a new consortium in Understanding Gastrointestinal Absorption-related Processes (UNGAP) was established through COST, a funding organisation of the European Union supporting translational research across Europe. In this review of the UNGAP Working group "Food-Drug Interface", the different mechanisms that can lead to pharmacokinetic food-drug interactions are discussed and summarised from different expert perspective

Vorhersage von intragastralen Nahrungsmitteleffekten: Untersuchungen zur Wirkstofffreisetzung und Magenpassage fester oraler Arzneiformen

Der Einfluss der Nahrungsaufnahme auf die Wirkstofffreisetzung aus oral applizierten Darreichungsformen ist eine der zentralen Fragestellungen der Biopharmazie. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die physiologischen Faktoren, die die Wirkstofffreisetzung aus festen oralen Darreichungsformen im postprandialen Magen beeinflussen können, näher charakterisiert. Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein biorelevantes In vitro-Freisetzungsmodell (Fed Stomach Model, FSM) entwickelt, das die Simulation mechanischer Beanspruchungen bei der Passage des postprandialen Magens ermöglicht. In speziellen Durchflusszellen konnten die Bewegungen der Arzneiform im Magen, intragastral auftretende Drücke sowie der Mediendurchfluss individuell kontrolliert und in physiologischen Größenordnungen simuliert werden. Die Eignung des FSM wurde anhand einer Zweischicht-Retardtablette mit dem Wirkstoff Diclofenac-Natrium untersucht. Die regionalen Besonderheiten des Magens hinsichtlich der mechanischen Beanspruchungen wurden dabei in Testprogrammen für den Fundus, das Antrum und die Magenentleerung berücksichtigt. Diese wurden, basierend auf den Ergebnissen einer Magnetic Marker Monitoring-Studie, ferner in drei verschiedenen Testszenarien, die das gastrale Lokalisationsverhalten einer oralen Arzneiform im postprandialen Magen über eine Dauer von 4 h beschreiben, in unterschiedlicher Abfolge miteinander kombiniert. Es konnte in Abhängigkeit der simulierten Testszenarien ein verschiedenartiges Freisetzungsverhalten der untersuchten Arzneiform beobachtet werden. Dabei führte die Simulation der milden Beanspruchungen im Fundus zu relativ geringen Freisetzungsraten. Aus den starken mechanischen Beanspruchungen, die die physiologischen Bedingungen im Antrum und während der Magenentleerung abbildeten, resultierten hingegen höhere Wirkstofffreigaberaten. Der Physiologie des Magens entsprechend, vermag das FSM die mechanischen Beanspruchungen, die potentiell auf eine feste orale Arzneiform einwirken, mit geringen Scherraten, aber mit kurzzeitig hohen Scherkräften zu simulieren. Das FSM wurde erfolgreich als ein biorelevantes In vitro-Freisetzungsmodell etabliert, das speziell die mechanischen Besonderheiten der Magenpassage einer festen oralen Darreichungsform berücksichtigt. Es kann dementsprechend die Entwicklung robuster Arzneimittel mit minimiertem Nahrungsmitteleffekt unterstützen, indem ein ungewünschtes Wirkstofffreigabeverhalten einer Formulierung frühzeitig identifiziert werden kann. Eine Magnetresonanztomographie (MRT)-Studie mit 12 gesunden Probanden lieferte erstmals Erkenntnisse zu den Volumina und Fettgehalten des Mageninhaltes nach Einnahme der hochkalorischen und fettreichen FDA-Standardmahlzeit. Der Mageninhalt wird gemeinhin als Auflösungsmedium für den in der Arzneiform enthaltenen Wirkstoff betrachtet, weshalb das zur Verfügung stehende Volumen ein entscheidender Faktor bei der Wirkstofffreisetzung ist. Das Mageninhaltsvolumen (gastric content volume, GCV) betrug nüchtern 31 ± 19 mL. Die Einnahme der Standardmahlzeit führte zu einem Anstieg des GCV auf 580 ± 38 mL. Verbunden mit dem nach Nahrungsaufnahme ebenfalls hohen Fettgehalt des Mageninhaltes von durchschnittlich 9,5 ± 1,0 %, kann dies eine Erhöhung der oralen Bioverfügbarkeit schlecht wasserlöslicher Arzneistoffe im Vergleich zur Nüchternapplikation bedingen. Während das GCV aufgrund der sich initial ausgleichenden Sekretions- und Entleerungsraten über 50 - 90 min relativ konstant war, überwog im Anschluss die Magenentleerung. Das GCV nahm dabei mit einer Rate von 1,7 ± 0,3 mL/min ab. Die Gabe von 240 mL Wasser 30 min nach Beginn der Nahrungsaufnahme führte zu einer kurzzeitig veränderten Magenentleerungskinetik. Das zugeführte Wasser wurde jedoch innerhalb kurzer Zeit aus dem Magen entleert. Bei entsprechend schneller Freisetzung eines Wirkstoffes aus der Arzneiform besteht somit die Möglichkeit, dass der Arzneistoff den Magen zügig mit dem parallel eingenommenen Wasser verlässt. Es wurde ferner gezeigt, dass selbst mehr als 6 h nach Nahrungsaufnahme sowohl das GCV als auch der Fettgehalt des Mageninhaltes im Vergleich zum Nüchternzustand signifikant erhöht waren. In klinischen Studien, bei denen die hochkalorische und fettreiche Standardmahlzeit verwendet wird, kann dementsprechend für mindestens 5 - 6 h von postprandialen Bedingungen ausgegangen werden. Die sich daraus ergebenden mechanischen und physikochemischen Besonderheiten müssen bei der Beurteilung der Studienergebnisse unbedingt berücksichtigt werden. Darüber hinaus können diese Erkenntnisse zur Optimierung der Testbedingungen von biorelevanten In vitro-Freisetzungsmodellen beitragen. Die In vitro- und In vivo-Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit belegten, dass die Bedingungen innerhalb des postprandialen Magens kritisch für die Wirkstofffreisetzung aus festen oralen Darreichungsformen sind. Die genaue Charakterisierung der Magenpassage ist für die Beurteilung von Nahrungsmitteleffekten somit von großer Bedeutung.Food effects on oral drug delivery are a central issue in the fields of biopharmacy and clinical pharmacology. Therefore, physiological factors, which may affect drug release from solid oral dosage forms in the fed stomach, have been investigated in detail in the present work. For this purpose, a biorelevant dissolution test device (Fed Stomach Model, FSM) has been developed. The FSM was designed as a flow-through system that allowed the biorelevant simulation of dosage form movement in stomach, intragastric pressures as well as gastric media flow. The functionality and applicability of the FSM was demonstrated using a bi-layer modified release tablet containing diclofenac sodium. The regional characteristics of the stomach in terms of mechanical stresses were taken into account in the form of test programs specific for fundus, antrum and gastric emptying. Furthermore, based on the results of a Magnetic Marker Monitoring study, these test programs were combined in different sequences in three test scenarios. In this manner, different deposition patterns of solid oral dosage forms in the fed stomach could be mimicked. Depending on the test scenario, different drug release rates were observed. The simulation of mild stresses in the fundus led to relatively low release rates. In contrast, the high mechanical stresses representing the physiological conditions in the antrum and during gastric emptying resulted in higher drug release rates. In accordance with gastric physiology, the FSM was able to simulate mechanical stresses acting on solid oral dosage forms with low shear rates, but with short-term high shear stresses. The FSM has been successfully established as a biorelevant dissolution test device, which considered mechanical aspects of the gastric transit of a solid oral dosage form. Since undesired drug release behavior of oral formulations can be identified early, the development of robust dosage forms with minimized food effect can be supported by the use of the FSM. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study with 12 healthy volunteers provided important insights into the volumes and fat fractions of the gastric content after ingestion of the high-caloric, high-fat FDA standard breakfast. The gastric content is generally regarded as the dissolution medium for orally administered drugs and thus, can be crucial for drug release. The gastric content volume (GCV) was 31 ± 19 mL in fasted state. After ingestion of the standard meal the GCV increased to volumes of 580 ± 38 mL. In combination with the high fat fraction (9.5 ± 1.0 %) of the gastric content directly after food intake, an increase in the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs compared to fasting administration may occur. Initially, the GCV was relatively constant over 50 - 90 min, which was probably the result of compensatory secretion and emptying rates. Subsequently, gastric emptying predominated and the GCV declined with a rate of 1.7 ± 0.3 mL/min. The administration of 240 mL of water 30 min after beginning of meal intake changed the present gastric emptying kinetic in all subjects. However, the water was emptied from the stomach within short time. Providing the fast release of an active ingredient from the dosage form, a rapid onset of drug plasma levels may result even in fed state due to rapid emptying of the drug from the stomach together with the co-administered water. It has further been shown that even 6 h after food intake, both, the GCV and the fat fraction were significantly increased in comparison to the fasted state. Hence, in clinical studies, in which the high-caloric, high-fat standard meal is used, it is likely that fed state conditions are existent for at least 5 - 6 h. The resulting mechanical as well as physicochemical characteristics have to be necessarily taken into account for the assessment of the study results. The findings of this MRI study will also contribute to the optimization of biorelevant dissolution test methods. The in vitro and in vivo results of this study demonstrated that the conditions within the fed stomach are critical for the drug release from solid oral dosage forms. Therefore, the detailed characterization of gastric transit conditions is of great importance for the evaluation of food effects on oral drug delivery

Lipids in the Stomach – Implications for the Evaluation of Food Effects on Oral Drug Absorption

International audienceFood effects on oral drug bioavailability can have significant impact on the provision of safe and reliable oral pharmacotherapy. A mechanistic understanding of the events that contribute to the occurrence of food effects is therefore critical. An increased oral bioavailability is often seen for poorly water-soluble drugs after co-administration with lipids, including lipids in food, and is commonly explained by the ability of lipids to enhance drug solubility in intestinal luminal fluids. In contrast, the impact of lipids on drug solubilisation in the stomach has received less attention. This is in spite of the fact that lipid digestion is initiated in the stomach by human gastric lipase and that gastric events also initiate emulsification of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. The stomach therefore acts to ‘pre-process’ lipids for subsequent events in the intestine and may significantly affect downstream events at intestinal drug absorption sites. In this article, the mechanisms by which lipids are processed in the stomach are reviewed and the potential impact of these processes on drug absorption discussed. Attention is also focused on in vitro methods that are used to assess gastric processing of lipids and their application to better understand food effects on drug release and absorption

In Vitro and In Vivo Test Methods for the Evaluation of Gastroretentive Dosage Forms

More than 50 years ago, the first concepts for gastroretentive drug delivery systems were developed. Despite extensive research in this field, there is no single formulation concept for which reliable gastroretention has been demonstrated under different prandial conditions. Thus, gastroretention remains the holy grail of oral drug delivery. One of the major reasons for the various setbacks in this field is the lack of predictive in vitro and in vivo test methods used during preclinical development. In most cases, human gastrointestinal physiology is not properly considered, which leads to the application of inappropriate in vitro and animal models. Moreover, conditions in the stomach are often not fully understood. Important aspects such as the kinetics of fluid volumes, gastric pH or mechanical stresses have to be considered in a realistic manner, otherwise, the gastroretentive potential as well as drug release of novel formulations cannot be assessed correctly in preclinical studies. This review, therefore, highlights the most important aspects of human gastrointestinal physiology and discusses their potential implications for the evaluation of gastroretentive drug delivery systems